Problem Definition: Quality of natural landscapes is reduced by unconscious intervention which disrupts ecological process of natural beds. Therefore, to revive the values of natural beds, rectification of disturbed natural landscapes is an important issue. Furthermore, it should be noted that this rectification results in comprehensive restoring the natural landscapes. The landscape ecology is one of the earliest approaches used in conservation of natural capitals and values.Goal: The main goal of the current research is to present a landscape restoration method based on the landscape ecology approach.Research procedure: This research has three steps including expression of the research problem, analysis of theoretical bases of the landscape restoration along with the landscape ecology methods, and selection of the proper methods for intervention of landscape designers in natural landscapes using comments of the related experts. These steps are carried out using the descriptive-analytic and survey methods.Conclusion: Based on findings obtained herein, a landscape restoration method comprising five steps is proposed. These steps include 1) survey and deep observation, 2) assessment in the landscape scale, 3) recognition and ecological perception, 4) design and act, and 5) management and control. The authors briefly name the proposed method as SARDM. The proposed method emphasize on presence of designer at the field. This presence leads to better perception of spatial relation between landscape elements. Moreover, it can be mentioned that the proposed procedure enables landscape assessment in both temporal and spatial dimensions. In addition, it matches the conducted assessment with results obtained in step 1.

Land degradation significantly threatens global food security and ecosystems, necessitating effective landscape restoration measures, particularly among smallholder farmers in vulnerable areas like the Womba watershed. This study investigates the localized socio-economic and physical factors influencing the adoption of landscape restoration practices within the Womba watershed. Utilizing data from 337 randomly selected household heads, along with focus group discussions and key informant interviews, the data were analyzed using descriptive and multivariate probit modeling estimation. The findings reveal that physical restoration practices, biological land management practices, and agronomic measures are prevalent among farmers. Key factors influencing adoption include gender dynamics, with male-headed households favoring physical interventions, while female-headed households prefer agronomic approaches. Age negatively impacts the adoption of physical and biological practices, while education correlates positively with agronomic methods. Family size enhances agronomic adoption, and access to credit significantly increases the likelihood of implementing diverse restoration strategies. Village memberships are positively associated with four landscape restoration practices at a 1% significance level. Notably, while farmers recognize the ecological benefits of these practices, their perceptions of socio-economic advantages remain limited. To promote broader adoption of restoration initiatives, policymakers should enhance educational outreach on the long-term socio-economic benefits and improve access to credit and extension services. Integrating these dimensions into policy frameworks will foster greater participation from both male and female farmers, ultimately supporting sustainable development in the Womba watershed and beyond.

Prior to any design activity, land (site) evaluation is essential to achieve an ecological sustainable design. Since the selected area for design located in Jajroud riverside in Khojir National Park, the land evaluation was preformed so as to find suitable recreational zones. Landscape structural elements (patches and corridors) as well as configuration of riverside vegetation which create natural patterns, were investigated for the purpose of considering chorological relations across ecosystem (landscape evaluation). So, the optimal site for intensive recreation development was proposed with the help of interpretation of the acquired specifications and the results obtained from land evaluation.In addition, contextual design recommendations were provided, based on landscape ecology principles and the findings of landscape structural patterns in area of question.

Restoration is to decrease human impact on ecosystems, and let them to recover. In this method we can connect patches with corridors. Thus, to introduce an ecological restoration we considered shafarod watershed with 39800 ha, that is located in Gilan province. Corridor recognized as a liner element of landscape, which can connect patches. The objective of this research is to introduce a new method for ecological restoration of forest by using landscape ecology approach. At first we classify patches with Forman (1995) on basis of natural or man made. Then each patch on shafarod landscape was classified with, near to river or far from road, and with area, then each patch had one code that tell us the situation of road and river related to each patches.Patches with upper than 1 hectare are suitable for stepping-stone patches. In shafarod watershed among 683 patches with 36200ha, 56 patches with 228ha for restoration had been recognized and total area that these patches need to create corridors for restoration is about 62ha.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Falcataria moluccana is a potential forest tree species with high economic value in Indonesia, and it is widely planted in various forests and landscape restorations. F. moluccana planting has declined in productivity due to decreased site quality and pest and disease attacks. Dark septate endophytes are a group of root endophytic fungi that have potential as biological control and promoter agents. This research aims to test the symbiotic potential of several dark septate endophytes isolates, to determine the effect of dark septate endophytes on the germination of F. moluccana seeds, and what types of secondary metabolites are produced from this symbiotic interaction. METHODS: Three dark septate endophytes isolates, i.e., Rhizopycnis vagum, Curvularia sp., and Dendrothyrium sp. were used in this study. Those isolates were inoculated on the seeds of F. moluccana and observed the endophytism and metabolite compounds produced after 23 hours and 14 days of inoculation time.FINDINGS: Three new findings of this study were: 1) the dark septate endophytes isolates, i.e., Rhizopycnis vagum, Curvularia sp., and Dendrothyrium sp. could colonize F. moluccana seeds on the surface with a colonization rate of 96 percent, 32.5 percent, and 100 percent, and entered the seed tissue and the sprout roots with a colonization rate of 93.3 percent, 93.3 percent, and 70 percent. The dark septate endophytes colonization could be seen at the beginning of germination, inoculation of 0-23 hours, and after germination until observation at the age of 14 days; 2) The dark septate endophytes has the potential to improve seed germination and vigor of F. moluccana, by speeding up the germination process and increasing the vigor index, this condition is expected to produce seeds that can grow and survive environmental stress; 3) The dark septate endophytes has the potential to trigger an increase secondary metabolite compounds in F. moluccana seeds, which can be as antibacterial, antifungal, and antioxidants such as the Hexamethyl Cyclotrisilaxane compound, 1-Isopropenyl-4-methyl-1,3-cyclohexadiene, and Acetamide, 2, 2,2-trifluoro-N-methyl-N- (trimethylsilyl) as a form of plant protection when the F. moluccana seeds grew and developed to be a normal seedling. These conditions are believed to produce high-quality seedlings that can grow and adapt well to their new environment after being outplanted.  CONCLUSION: Dark septate endophytes colonization of F. moluccana seeds does not reduce seed viability, so dark septate endophytes inoculation of seeds can be used as a seed treatment and can produce healthy and vigorous F. moluccana seedlings, thereby increasing the success of planting in the context of restoration of degraded forest and landscape.

Tehran is one of the most polluted metropolises in the world. Sink capacity for absorption and assimilation of pollution is reduced generally in Tehran due to failure in incorporation of ecological aspects in the regional land use development plans. The present condition of air and water related issues in Tehran are largely affected by landscape structural alterations at urban level.In this research, the focus is to understand the relationships between land use patterns and ecological processes particularly those air and water related processes, which are affecting the urban environmental quality. We propose measures to harmonize urban growth patterns based on the existing opportunities for increasing the sink capacity for air pollution and waste water.Using Land sat satellite images (dated 1988 & 2002) maps for three classes of green, open and built land cover types were created. A series of landscape metrics, NP (Number of Patch), MPS (Mean Patch Size), MNND (Minimum Nearest Neighbor Distance), and CAP (Class Area Proportion) were used for the analysis of landscape structure (both configuration and composition) at two different scales. Based on Variations in environmental conditions and spatial configuration and composition of Tehran landscape, three distinct homogeneous zones and six subzones with different environmental conditions and ecosystem capabilities for urban development are distinguished within the delimited urban region considered (Figure 1 and Table 1).The following characteristics have been associated to each zone: Zone A: in this zone, the remnant patch mosaic network with the highest MPS value and most appropriate connectedness is found. Conservation and restoration of remnant patch mosaic network will be most cost effective results in landscape type A because of its proximity to mountainous area as the source of valuable services that may be transferred into the city by means of several river valleys which are still remained less altered.Zone B: in this zone despite low class area proportion of urban green space, it has a high class area proportion of open (agricultural land, hills and river valleys) patch type with good connectedness. If treated waste water and urban runoff is appropriately allocated to these patches, an important green patch mosaic as urban forest is expected to be created that function as sink for air and water pollution and will serve as a source of environmental services in addition to improvement of urban regions' remnant patch network connectedness.Zone C: The present urban remnant patch mosaic network has both a low connectedness and a low class area proportion. It is essential to develop urban green spaces to obtain regional connectedness despite the fact that no particular advantageous potential resources are available in this respect.…Final results demonstrate that despite ecological alteration, the remnant patch mosaic network of Tehran may still be restorable. The river valley network provides the basis for development of a conceptual framework referred to in this research as "Refuge Network" in order to integrate all corrective measures at different scales. Natural layouts of river valley networks along with the core open patches of hills may be the basis for implementation of a comprehensive restoration plan based upon the "Aggregate with outlier" model as a spatial design framework at urban level.

Bisotun site as an outstanding universal value and a testimony to the ancient Persian civilization is inscribed on ICOMOS world heritage list (2006, No 1222). As wildlife refuge, Bisotun site is comprised of unique ecological values. The present article emphasizes on the role of landscape architecture in converging natural and cultural aspects in a cohesive restoration plan, providing the basis for reducing current ecological issues, promoting cultural identity and improving prosperity of the living condition of the impoverished people in the region. The present article has tried to use a descriptive-analytic method to present and codify the landscape restoration principles in natural-historical site of Bisotun.1. Site: Bisotun historical site is located 30 kilometers northeast of Kermanshah in western Iran. Bisotun, which means “the place or stand of the God (s)”, has been of mythological value throughout Iran’s ancient history. This site is located along the ancient trade route linking the Iranian high plateau with Mesopotamia. The core zone (ca 1200 x 500m) covers the heart of the archaeological site. «This site has remained from the prehistoric times to the Median, Achaemenid, Sassanian, and Ilkhanid periods. The principal monument is the bas-relief and cuneiform inscription ordered by Darius I, the Great, in 521 BC, serving as a testimony to Persian civilization and one of the world’s most creditable historic evidences, that has been inscribed in world heritage ICOMOS list (2006. No 1222). In fact, the natural features of Bisotun region were an introduction to the formation of culture and human history in this region. At least 28 historical-artistic elements in this region have so far been inscribed by the Cultural Heritage Organization of Iran. Bistoun comprises various key characteristics which have already made it a unique place across Iran’s ancient history. They include various ecological and aesthetical features, several caves deep inside the mountain and also Gamas-Ab and Dinevar-Ab rivers, native vegetation and wildlife features which had motivated the building of bridges and hydro-plants for Sasanian kings. Furthermore, there are many fictions and folklores mingled with Bisotun. This cultural landscape had already provided a better meaning to the concept of«nature». Although this unique mountain lays in a historical silence, in fact this silence is replete with many unknown mysteries.2. Current situation: Today, despite the ecological and cultural potentials, Bisotun faces many environmental problems and a large part of its natural resources is at the risk of destruction due to the excessive industrialization occurring in the region. Although this unique wildlife refuge is in danger, new factories are still built in its landscape boundaries and nature destruction has proved to have already had long lasting effects on local economy. The main question that the present research deals with is whether it would be possible to see the culture and nature of Bisotun in a dynamic interaction with each other and if it would be possible to study the aspects of historic restoration and natural regeneration in a cohesive approach of «Bisotun cultural landscape restoration». A descriptive-analytic method has been applied to present and codify the design principles in this site. The survey of the site has been carried out in the following two phases: a) Natural landscape study: In this phase, Bisotun’s protected area which comprises 120, 000 acres of area embracing some parts of Bisotun meadow and Gamas-Ab River which are located near Bisotun historical site are studied.b) Historical landscape study: In this phase, the national and world defined boundaries of Bisotun historical site and the trail of ancient route that contains 3, 700 acres of natural landscape are studied. Research results show that during the last 50 years, the natural-historical characteristics of Bistoun site have lost their coherence and unity. It is generally believed that when a cultural landscape loses its unity and is denied the care it deserves, it cannot preserve its magic and the spirit of place which originally belonged to it. Unfortunately, the construction of inter-city freeway through the ancient site, dumping industrial sewage in nearby rivers, leveling the lands and destroying the pastures are all examples of negligence to the language of the landscape in the region. In fact, all of these factors have influenced the glory and elegance of the landscape; the elegance which attracted Iranian kings and artists to Bisotun in the past.

Historical buildings, especially architectural structures such as bridges, hold a special place in architecture and the natural landscape, reflecting humanity's ability to combine art and function. Currently, many restoration projects in third-world countries are carried out without adequate attention to natural landscape and architectural indexes, leading to a decrease in the cultural and aesthetic values of the monuments. Meanwhile, throughout history, the architecture of ancient Iranian bridges has played a significant role not only as functional structures but also as cultural and artistic symbols in shaping the natural and cultural landscape of the region. The aim of this study is to examine and develop effective indexes for restoring the natural landscape of ancient Iranian historical bridges. This research is analytical with a practical purpose. The paradigm of the study is interpretive, and the research design is qualitative. Data collection was conducted through library and documentary methods. Initially, content analysis and inductive reasoning were used, followed by a participatory decision-making approach utilizing the fuzzy Delphi model. The findings indicate that conservation of architectural elements, restoration standards, and resilient materials rank highest, with scores of 23.4, 19.4, and 16.4, respectively, in finalizing the model. The conclusion is that the identified indicators should be assessed collectively and simultaneously so that restoration projects can maintain their durability, sustainability, and cultural identity in the long term, and the natural landscape of historic bridges can be properly preserved and restored. Future studies could explore the internal and structural relationships among the indicators.

The ecological nature of the urban landscape of rivers, as one of the main pillars of natural ecosystems, has a significant impact on the environmental quality of cities. With the increase in urbanization and the expansion of human activities, these ecosystems have faced serious challenges in such a way that ecosystem pollution brings with it hydrological changes and destruction of animal habitats, which leads to the destruction of the river ecosystem and changes in its biological structure. In addition, interfering factors resulting from environmental hazards are also considered a serious threat to the ecosystem of inner-city rivers. Therefore, the necessity of ecological restoration of rivers in order to restore the urban landscape, natural ecosystems and increase their resilience to environmental changes and human interventions is a vital issue in the management of contemporary urban programs. This research, with developmental-applied objectives, with an exploratory-correlational method, with library data, first reviews the research literature and then, using authentic historical documents of the Haraz River, field observations and remote sensing images, develops a theoretical model with deductive-inferential analyses; finally, the ecological components effective in improving the urban landscape of inner-city rivers are extracted with a resilience approach. Hydrological components, biological and morphological diversity are known as key factors in the ecological structure of the river. Diversity, ecological variables, modularity, ecosystem services, development and overlap of rules, innovation, social capital and feedback review are the effective components in ecological resilience extracted to be placed in a process-oriented evolutionary structure and a theoretical model of restoration is developed. For this purpose, the study sample; The Haraz River in Amol city is examined and in order to realize the theoretical model, relevant strategies for improving the Haraz River are explained to be included in Amol urban development plans.